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A HISTORY OF THE PAPACYFROM THE GREAT SCHISM TO THE SACK OF ROMEBy
M. CREIGHTON
I. THE RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER.
II. THE POPES AT AVIGNON.
BOOK I THE GREAT SCHISM. 1378-1414
I. URBAN VI, CLEMENT VII, AND THE AFFAIRS OF NAPLES.
II. CLEMENT VII & BONIFACE IX. RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN OXFORD AND
PARIS. 1389-1394.
III. BONIFACE IX & BENEDICT XIII. ATTEMPTS OF FRANCE TO HEAL THE
SCHISM. 1394-1404.
IV. INNOCENT VII & BENEDICT XIII. TROUBLES IN ITALY AND FRANCE.
1404-1406.
V. GREGORY XII & BENEDICT XIII. NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN THE RIVAL
POPES. 1406-1409.
VI. THE COUNCIL OF PISA. 1409.
VII. ALEXANDER V. 1409-1410.
VIII. JOHN XXIII. 1410-1414.
BOOK II. THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE 1414-1418.
I. THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE AND JOHN XXIII. 1414-1415.
II. DEPOSITION OF JOHN XXIII. 1415-1415.
III. RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ENGLAND AND BOHEMIA IV. JOHN HUSS IN BOHEMIA 1398—1414 V THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE AND THE BOHEMIAN REFORMERS 1414—1416
VI.
VII.
VIII.
BOOK III THE COUNCIL OF BASEL 1419-1447.
I. MARTIN V AND ITALIAN AFFAIRS. 1418-1425. II. MARTIN V AND THE PAPAL RESTORATION. BEGINNINGS Of EUGENIUS IV. 425-1432. III. BOHEMIA AND THE HUSSITE WARS . 1418- I43I IV. FIRST ATTEMPT OF EUGENUS IV TO DISSOLVE THE COUNCIL OF BASEL . 1431—1434. V. THE COUNCIL OF BASEL AND THE HUSSITES . 1432-1434. VI. EUGENIUS IV AND THE COUNCIL OF BASEL. NEGOTIATIONS WITH THE GREEKS AND THE BOHEMIANS . 1434—1436. VII. WAR BETWEEN THE POPE and THE COUNCIL. 1436—1438. VIII. EUGENIUS IV IN FLORENCE AND THE UNION OF THE GREEK CHURCH . 1434—1439. IX. THE GERMAN DECLARATION OF NEUTRALITY AND THE ELECTION OF FELIX V. 1438—1439. X. EUGENIUS IV. AND FELIX V. 1440-1444.
BOOK IV.
THE PAPAL RESTORATION. 1444—1464.
I. AENEAS SYLVIUS PICCOLOMINI AND THE RESTORATION OF THE OBEDIENCE OF GERMANY. 1444-1447. II. NICOLAS V AND THE AFFAIRS OF GERMANY . 1447-1453 III. NICHOAS Y AND THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE . 1453-1455. IV. nicolas v and the REVIVAL OF LEARNING V. calixtus iii, 14455—1458 VI. PIUS II AND THE CONGRESS OF MANTUA.
VII. pius ii and the affairs of naples and germany.1460—1461. VIII. PIUS II AND HIS RELATIONS TO FRANCE AND BOHEMIA.
IX. CRUSADE AND DEATH OF PIUS II.
BOOK V. the italian princes.
1464—1518.
I. PAUL
II. A.D. 1464—1471.
II. PAUL II AND HIS RELATIONS TO LITERATURE AND ART. III. SIXTUS IV AND THE REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE. 1471—1480.
IV. ITALIAN WARS OF SIXTUS IV . 1481—1484.
V. INNOCENT VIII. 1484—1492.
VI. BEGINNINGS OF ALEXANDER VI . 1492—1494.
VII. CHARLES VIII IN ITALY. 1494—1495.
VIII. ALEXANDER VI AND FRA GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA. 1495—1498.
IX. alexander vi and the papal states. 1495—1499.
X.
XI
XII.
XIII.
XV. the wars of julius II.
XVI. THE HOLY LEAGUE.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
BOOK VI.
THE GERMAN REVOLT. 1517—1527.
I. HUMANISM IN GERMANY
II. THE REUCHLIN STRUGGLE
III. THE RISE OF LUTHER
IV. THE IMPERIAL ELECTION
V. THE DIET OF WORMS
VI. THE DEATH OF LEO X
VII. ADRIAN VI
VIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF CLEMENT VII
IX. JUNE-JULY, 1525 . THE SACK OF ROME
My aim in this book is to bring together materials for a judgment of the
change which came over Europe in the sixteenth century, to which the name of
“The Reformation” is loosely given. I have attempted to do this from a strictly
historical point of view,— by which I mean that I have contented myself with
watching events and noting the gradual development of affairs. I have taken the
history of the Papacy as the central point for my investigation, because it
gives the largest opportunity for a survey of European affairs as a whole. I
have not begun with the actual crisis itself, but have gone back to trace the
gradual formation of opinions which were long simmering below the surface
before they found actual expression. I purpose, if opportunity should be given
me, to continue my survey in succeeding volumes to the dissolution of the
Council of Trent.
I have begun with a period of general helplessness, when men felt that
the old landmarks were passing away, but did not see what was to take their
place. The period of the Great Schism in the Papacy was but a reflection of
similar crises in the history of the chief states of Europe. Dreary as the
history of the Schism may be, its records show that it gave a great impulse to
European thought. The existence of two Papal Courts doubled Papal taxation and
produced a deep-seated feeling of the need for some readjustment in the
relations of the Papacy towards national churches. The attempts to heal the
Schism led to a serious criticism of the Papal system by orthodox theologians,
and to an examination of primitive usage which was fruitful for later times.
The difficulties experienced in finding any way out of the dilemma called the
attention of statesmen to the anomaly of the existence of an irresponsible and
indeterminable power. The theological and political basis of the Papacy was
discussed, and Europe did not forget the results of the discussion. The power
of the State, which at least rested on intelligible grounds, interfered
somewhat rudely to heal the breaches of an institution whose pretensions were
so lofty that its mechanism, once disordered, could not be amended from within.
The result of many experiments and much discussion was the establishment
of a General Council as the ultimate court of appeal. Unsuccessful through its
crudity at Pisa, the conciliar system asserted itself at Constance, and was
strong enough to answer its immediate purpose, and end the Schism. But when it
had done this, it could do nothing more. The abolition of ecclesiastical
grievances was beyond its power. Men could not discover the interests of
Christendom, because they were overlaid by conflicting interests of classes and
nations. The Council, which expressed in the fullest manner the unity of
Christendom, showed that that unity was illusory. The conciliar principle was
set up as a permanent factor in the organization of the Church, and men hoped
that it might be more fortunate in the future.
The condition of Europe and the fortunes of the Papacy offered a
brilliant opportunity to the Council of Basel. In some things it succeeded; but
it was helpless to reorganize the Church. It attacked, instead of reforming,
the Papacy : it proposed to hand over the Church to a self-constituted
parliament. The Council of Constance failed because it represented Christendom
too faithfully, even to its national dissensions. The Council of Basel failed
because, in its endeavor to avoid that danger, it represented nothing save the
pretensions of a self-elected, self-seeking body of ecclesiastics.
The failure of the Council of Basel showed the impossibility of
reforming the Church from within. But though the General Councils could not
carry out a conservative scheme of reform, they succeeded in checking movements
which, in their attempts to remedy abuses, set up new theories of the Church
and of its government. Ideas originated by Wycliffe in England afforded a basis
for a national movement in Bohemia, which in political as well as in
ecclesiastical matters filled Europe with alarm. Bohemia, victorious but
exhausted, was drawn to a compromise, and the flame was reduced to smoldering
embers.
The pacification of Bohemia and the failure of the conciliar movement
gave the opportunity for a Papal restoration, which was conducted with great
ability by two remarkable Popes, Nicolas V and Pius II. They succeeded in
rooting out the remnants of opposition, in re-establishing the Papal monarchy,
and in opening out new paths for its activity. As the patron of the New
Learning, and the leader of Christendom against the Turks, the Papacy was
influential and respected. But the condition of European affairs was not
hopeful for any great enterprise. The death of Pius II. left the exact sphere
of the future action of the Papacy still doubtful.
Such is the thread of connection which runs through these volumes. The
vastness of the undertaking is a bar to anything like completeness in its
execution. I cannot claim to have done more than given a specimen of European
history, even in its relations to my subject. Much that is interesting has been
omitted, much that is dull has been told at length. My omissions and my details
are intentional. I have enlarged on points, not because they are interesting to
the modern observer, but because they formed part of the political experience
of those who molded the immediate future. I have dwelt at greatest length upon
the relations of the Papacy with Germany and Italy. German affairs are
important as showing the experience of the German reformers of the past
dealings of the Papacy with the German Church and State. On the other hand, the
intricacies of Italian politics explain the secularization of the Papacy to
which the reformers pointed as their justification.
The circumstances of my life have not allowed me to make much research
for new authorities, which in so large a field would have been almost
impossible. What I have found in MS. was not of much importance. Respecting the
main points which I have treated, the amount of material available is very
large.
My work has been written under the difficulties which necessarily attend
one who lives far from great libraries, and to whom study is the occupation of
leisure hours, not the main object of life. I am conscious of many
deficiencies, yet I thought it better to commit my volumes to the press rather
than wait for opportunities which might never occur.
On the difficult question of the spelling of proper names I am afraid
that I have not been so consistent as I hoped to be. I have tried to use the
name by which I thought a man was called by his contemporaries; but I see, when
it is too late, that I have occasionally called a man by different titles
without explanation, and have sometimes wavered in my spelling. In the case of
Cardinals especially, who went by many names amongst their contemporaries, it
is difficult always to maintain consistency.
I have to thank many friends for their assistance. Professor Stubbs was
an unfailing refuge in case of difficulties. Professor Mayor of Cambridge gave
me valuable advice. Mr. Hodgkin’s friendly sympathy has constantly cheered me.
But my greatest debt of gratitude is due to Rev. M. H. G. Buckle, who has
employed the learning of a long life in the laborious task of revising my
sheets for the press.
Embleton Vicarage, Chathill, Northumberland: July 12, 1882
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